Indian Schools of Philosophy (Part I)

Indian Schools of Philosophy (Part I): Orthodox (Āstika) Systems

This topic is central to GS Paper 1 (Indian Heritage & Culture) and Philosophy Optional—candidates should master key doctrines, founders, ethical and metaphysical concepts, and the interplay of ritual, reason, and mysticism in Indian traditions.

Introduction

Indian philosophical thought is one of the world’s richest, encompassing a search for truth, ultimate reality, and liberation (moksha). Rooted in questioning existence, ethics, and consciousness, Indian philosophies address the meaning of life, the path to self-realization, and the nature of the cosmos.​

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Classification: Āstika (Orthodox) vs Nāstika (Heterodox)

Indian philosophy traditionally divides into two broad categories:

• Āstika (Orthodox) schools: Accept the authority of the Vedas as revealed scripture.
• Nāstika (Heterodox) schools: Reject Vedic authority.

The Āstika schools—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta—form the core of “Hindu” philosophical discourse. Nāstika schools include Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka materialism.​

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The Six Āstika (Orthodox) Schools

Nyaya: Logic and Epistemology

• Founder: Sage Gautama
• Focus: Logic, reasoning, and epistemology (pramāṇa, or valid sources of knowledge)
• Contribution: Developed formal logic, debate theory, tools to distinguish true knowledge from false; essential for legal and philosophical argument in India.​

Vaisheshika: Atomic Metaphysics

• Founder: Sage Kanada
• Focus: Analysis of physical reality and categories (padarthas)
• Contribution: First to propose “atomism”—theory that all objects are made of indivisible atoms; classified matter and consciousness into seven categories.​

Samkhya: Dualism of Consciousness and Matter

• Founder: Sage Kapila
• Focus: Two realities—Purusha (pure consciousness) and Prakriti (primordial matter)
• Contribution: No God; liberation occurs when Purusha realizes separateness from Prakriti. Influences Yoga and Indian psychology.​

Yoga: Spiritual Discipline and Liberation

• Founder: Patanjali (Yoga Sutras)
• Focus: Mind-body discipline, meditation, Yama/Niyama (ethics), physical postures, breath control
• Contribution: “Ashtanga Yoga”—eightfold path to spiritual liberation. Popular globally as the basis of modern yoga and meditation.​

Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa): Vedic Ritual and Dharma

• Founder: Sage Jaimini
• Focus: Exegesis of early Vedas; rules for performing rituals (karma-kanda)
• Contribution: Rituals are central to sustaining the cosmos and achieving dharma. Stressed orthopraxy (correct practice).​

Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa): Ultimate Reality and Self

• Founders: Multiple (Badarayana, Shankara, Ramanuja, Madhva)
• Focus: Upanishads, Brahman (universal reality), Atman (self), maya (illusion)
• Major Schools:
  • Advaita (non-dualism, Shankara): Atman and Brahman are one.
  • Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism, Ramanuja): Brahman is qualified by souls and matter.
  • Dvaita (dualism, Madhva): Distinction between soul and Brahman is real.
• Contribution: Most influential in defining Indian spirituality, metaphysics, and ethics.​

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Key Concepts

• Karma: Law of action and effects shaping future lives.
• Dharma: Duty/righteousness as per cosmic order.
• Moksha: Liberation from cycle of rebirth (samsara), supreme goal.
• Atman: Undying spiritual self.
• Brahman: Supreme reality pervading the universe.
  These appear across all Āstika systems with nuanced interpretations.​

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Philosophical Contribution

The Āstika schools shaped Indian ethics, metaphysics, and spiritual tradition—creating frameworks for debate, scientific inquiry (logic, atomism), moral philosophy, and self-realization. They forged India’s unique ethos of unity in diversity through their different, yet often overlapping, perspectives on liberation.

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Modern Relevance

Ancient Indian philosophy influences yoga, mindfulness, meditation, logic, ethics, and holistic wellness worldwide today. Concepts like karma, dharma, and moksha are referenced in law, psychiatry, and psychology, and have become central to India’s soft power and global spiritual discourse.​

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Conclusion

Though diverse, the six orthodox schools share a vision of self-realization as the supreme aim, blending analysis, discipline, devotion, and ethical living. Their legacy endures—reminding us that truth can be sought from many paths, but self-knowledge and liberation remain their common aspiration.

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Comparison Chart of Six Orthodox Schools

Key Philosophers and Texts

• Nyaya: Sage Gautama – Nyaya Sutra
• Vaisheshika: Sage Kanada – Vaisheshika Sutra
• Samkhya: Kapila – Samkhya Karika
• Yoga: Patanjali – Yoga Sutras
• Mimamsa: Jaimini – Mimamsa Sutras
• Vedanta: Badarayana (Brahma Sutras), Upanishads, Shankara, Ramanuja, Madhva

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FAQs

Q1: What are the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy?
The six orthodox (Āstika) schools are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa), and Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa), all of which accept the authority of the Vedas.​

Q2: What is the key difference between Āstika and Nāstika schools?
Āstika schools accept the Vedas’ authority, while Nāstika schools (like Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka) reject it as the central source of knowledge.​

Q3: Who founded the main orthodox schools, and what are their key texts?

• Nyaya: Gautama – Nyaya Sutra
• Vaisheshika: Kanada – Vaisheshika Sutra
• Samkhya: Kapila – Samkhya Karika
• Yoga: Patanjali – Yoga Sutras
• Mimamsa: Jaimini – Mimamsa Sutras
• Vedanta: Badarayana – Brahma Sutras​

Q4: What recurring concepts unite Indian philosophical systems?
Key themes include karma (action and consequence), dharma (righteousness), moksha (liberation), atman (self), and brahman (ultimate reality), though their interpretations vary.​

Q5: How are these philosophies relevant today?
Ancient Indian philosophy shapes modern ethics, logic, spirituality, yoga practice, and global perceptions of mindfulness and well-being.​