10 December 2022

MAINS QUESTIONS

Q1. The 1909 ‘constitutional changes’ were a complete farce. Add a negative comment The Indian Council Act of 1909 enforced a “benevolent dictatorship” in defiance of the nation’s citizens’ pleas for a responsible administration. (250 words)

 Paper & Topic: GS I – Modern Indian History

Introduction:

• The Indian Councils Act of 1909 was often referred to as the Morley-Minto reforms in recognition of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, Lord John Morley, and the Viceroy, Lord Minto. In an effort to boost Indian participation in administration, meet the demands of the moderate wing of the Indian National Congress, and expand the authority of legislative councils, it first implemented the election system. The 1861 and 1892 Indian Councils Acts were modified by the Act.

Body:

History of the Act:

• During a meeting with Lord Minto in October 1906, Muslim nobles from the Shimla Deputation, led by the Agha Khan, demanded separate electorates for Muslims and representation above their numerical strength due to “the magnitude of the contribution” Muslims were providing “to the defence of the empire.”
• The Muslim League, which was founded in December 1906 by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, Nawabs Mohsin-ul-Mulk, and Waqar-ul-Mulk, was immediately taken over by the same group.
• The Muslim League sought to maintain imperial devotion and keep Muslim intellectuals away from Congress.
• After Bengal was divided by Lord Curzon, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, John Morley, and the Conservative Viceroy of India, Minto, thought that putting an end to the Bengali insurrection was necessary but insufficient to restore stability to the British Raj.
• They determined that a major move was necessary to win over loyal members of the Indian upper classes and the expanding section of the public that was becoming more Westernized.

 How the Act functioned:

• Both the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils have experienced substantial size increases. The Central Legislative Council currently has 60 members instead of its previous 16 members. The composition of the provincial legislative councils varied.
• Although they permitted an unofficial majority in the provincial legislative councils, the British kept their official majority in the Central Legislative Council.
• The elected representatives were chosen through proxy elections. The central legislature’s members would be chosen by local bodies after an electoral college chose the members of the provincial legislatures.
• The duties for legislative council discussions have grown at all levels. Members should offer more justifications, budget resolutions, and other items.
• For the first time, this provision permitted Indian participation in the viceroy’s and governors’ executive councils. The first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council was Satyendra Prasad Sinha. He was picked to work in the justice system. There were two Indians nominated for the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs Council.
• It was possible to create a system of Muslim communal representation by embracing the concept of a “different electorate.” This mandated that the Muslim members could only be chosen by Muslims. Lord Minto became known as the “Father of the Communal Electorate” as a result, and the Act “legalised communalism.”
• Additionally, it made it possible for zamindars, universities, chambers of commerce, and presidency corporations to be clearly represented.

Evaluation of the Reforms:

• The reforms of 1909 failed to address India’s political quandary and were also financially unviable. Lord Morley made it clear that he opposed parliamentary or responsible administration being implemented in India and thought the colonial self-rule promoted by the Congress was improper for the nation.
• The unyielding constitutional authoritarianism of the Act and the Governor-position General’s veto power were successfully preserved.
• The “constitutional” modifications actually succeeded in dividing the nationalist ranks by confusing the moderates and suppressing the expansion of Indian nationalism through the irritating tactic of different electorates.
• The government tried to unite Muslims and Moderates in order to stem the nationalist trend that was gathering strong.
• But discussing the various electorates, the officials and Muslim leaders frequently referred to the entire community, when in fact they only meant the appeasement of a small portion of the Muslim elite.
• Separate electorates, in the opinion of Congress, were undemocratic and prevented the development of a shared Hindu-Muslim sense of Indian national identity.
• In addition, the election process was incredibly dishonest and gave the appearance that legislators had been the targets of multiple sieves of spying.
• Additionally, despite the use of legislative procedures, no responsibility was taken, which occasionally resulted in careless and dangerous criticism of the government.
• Gokhale was one of a few council members who took advantage of the debate to call for primary education for all children, criticise stringent regulations, and bring attention to the problems with indentured labour and Indian labourers in South Africa.
• The 1909 reforms gave the people of the country more shadow than substance.

 The following are some reasons why the Act of 1909 was significant:

• Despite the fact that some Indians had already been assigned to them, this effectively enabled for the first election of Indians to the various legislative bodies across the country.
• The invention of the electoral notion set the foundation for a parliamentary system, even if Morley may not have intended it in this way.
• Additionally, it was the first to acknowledge that the composition of the legislative council is determined by election.
• It gave Indians access to alternative channels for airing their complaints. Additionally, they have the chance to criticise the CEOs and offer suggestions for improved management.
• Pakistan tended to move toward Islamic conservatism after Jinnah’s death in September 1948, and Dalits faced increasing pressure.

Conclusion:

• In an effort to unite the dissident Muslims in the National Movement and appease the moderates by giving them their own electorate, the Indian Council Act of 1909 was approved. Although the populace desired self-government, they instead received “benevolent dictatorship.”

Q2. Tilak was a practical politician who promoted National Education, Boycott, Swadeshi, and Passive Resistance as a four-point action plan to emancipate Indian politics. Discuss Tilak’s participation in India’s national movement. (250 words)

 Paper & Topic: GS I – Modern Indian History

Introduction:

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a social reformer and fighter for freedom in India. He was unquestionably one of the most ardent supporters of Swaraj, or Indian self-rule, and he had a huge impact on the development of modern-day India. During India’s struggle for independence, his well-known proclamation that “Swaraj is my birth right, and I shall have it” served as an example for burgeoning revolutionaries. The honorific moniker “Lokmanya,” which is Sanskrit for “one who is revered by the people,” was given to him by his supporters and used by the British authorities to refer to him as the “Father of Indian Unrest.”

Body:

 Tilak’s participation in the Indian national movement:

Ideology:

• In 1890, Tilak enlisted in the Indian National Congress. He quickly began expressing his vehement opposition to the party’s moderate goals for self-rule.
• He claimed that the British could not be defeated by even the most fundamental constitutional change. As a result, he decided to challenge popular Congressman Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• He desired to drive out the British by an armed uprising. Tilak ardently backed the Swadeshi (Indigenous) movement and the boycott of British products following Lord Curzon’s division of Bengal.
• Tilak and his supporters became recognised as the INC’s radical wing as a result of this fundamental difference in thought.
• Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab and Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal both backed Tilak’s nationalist endeavours.

 Incarcerations and protests:

• Pune Commissioner W. C. Rand gave the orders for the army and police to trespass into people’s houses, violate their right to privacy, destroy their belongings, and make it difficult for people to enter and exit the city.
• Tilak published critical articles about the plague epidemic in Pune and the surrounding districts in his newspapers as payback for the forceful character of British operations.
• On June 22, 1897, the Chapekar brothers were motivated by his essay to kill Commissioner Rand and Lt. Ayerst. Tilak was subsequently sentenced to 18 months in prison for encouraging murder on the grounds of sedition.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak endured a torturous six years in detention in Mandalay Jail, Burma, from 1908 to 1914.
• He openly backed the assassination attempts on the Chief Presidency Magistrate in 1908 by the revolutionaries Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki. He continued to write music while he was incarcerated; his most well-known composition is Gita Rahasya.
• The All India Home Rule League and Tilak:
• In 1915, Tilak returned to India as the country’s political landscape was rapidly altering in the wake of World War I.
• After that, he went back to politics with a more responsible attitude. Together with Joseph Baptista, Annie Besant, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Tilak created the All India Home Rule League in 1916 after deciding to mend fences with his fellow nationalists.
• The league had 1400 members by April 1916, and 32,000 by April 1917.
• He returned to the INC but was unable to mediate a settlement between the two fiercely antagonistic factions.

 Newspapers:

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak established two magazines, “Mahratta” (English) and “Kesari,” to advance his patriotic objectives (Marathi).
• Both journals placed a high priority on encouraging Indians to be self-reliant and educating people about their illustrious heritage. The publication strongly promoted national freedom.
• Tilak bravely described the devastation brought on by starvation and the epidemic, in addition to the government’s complete disregard for the “Famine Relief Fund.”

 Social Change:

• After completing his education, Tilak chose to devote himself to the greater cause of national awakening rather than accept the lucrative offers of a government career.
• He was a remarkable reformer who spent his entire life advancing the rights of women to education and empowerment.
• Tilak suggested that elaborate celebrations be held in honour of Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji Jayanti. He believed that by remembering these occasions, Indians would become more unified and patriotic.

Conclusion:

• Tilak fought to free India from British control during the course of his protracted political career. He was the most well-known Indian politician before to Gandhi. In contrast to Gokhale, another Maharashtrian of the same generation, Tilak was regarded as a strong nationalist but a social conservative.